What is Science?

This lecture explores the foundational philosophy and sociology of science. It argues that doctoral training should move beyond narrow specialization to cultivate critical thinkers who understand the broader context of their work, including its history, ethics, and logic. The lecture traces the evolution of scientific thought from ancient Greek concepts of epistemeand techne to modern debates between positivism and post-positivism. By examining how scientific "truth" is established through methods such as deduction, induction, and the principle of falsifiability, the lecture highlights that science is not merely a collection of facts but a social and intellectual enterprise governed by specific norms and paradigms.

Learning objectives:
At the end of this lecture, students will be able to:

• Distinguish between the different disciplines that study science: History, Philosophy, Sociology, and Policy of Science
• Identify the dual character of science as both natural philosophy (why) and instrumentalism (how)
• Explain the hierarchy of scientific statements, ranging from conjectures and hypotheses to theories and laws
• Contrast the two main approaches to analyzing complexity: reductionism versus holism
• Compare the traditional linear view of scientific progress (positivism) with Thomas Kuhn’s model of scientific revolutions and paradigms
• Summarize the institutional norms of science, such as communalism, universalism, disinterestedness, and organized skepticism